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Note that in water diuresis cholesterol and sugar buy prazosin 2.5 mg low cost, there is an increased urine flow but not an increased solute excretion lower cholesterol foods eat list generic prazosin 5 mg buy on line. In all other cases of diuresis, termed osmotic diuresis, the increased urine flow is the result of a primary increase in solute excretion. For example, failure of normal Na1 reabsorption causes both increased Na1 excretion and increased water excretion, because, as we have seen, water reabsorption is dependent on solute reabsorption. Another example of osmotic diuresis occurs in people with uncontrolled diabetes mellitus; in this case, the glucose that escapes reabsorption because of the huge filtered load retains water in the lumen, causing it to be excreted along with the glucose. To summarize, any loss of solute in the urine must be accompanied by water loss (osmotic diuresis), but the reverse is not true. Urine Concentration: the Countercurrent Multiplier System Before reading this section, you should review several terms presented in Chapter 4-hypoosmotic, isoosmotic, and hyperosmotic. In the section just concluded, we described how the kidneys produce a small volume of urine when the plasma concentration of vasopressin is high. Under these conditions, the urine is concentrated (hyperosmotic) relative to plasma. The ability of the kidneys to produce hyperosmotic urine is a major determinant of the ability to survive with limited water intake. The human kidney can produce a maximal urinary concentration of 1400 mOsmol/L, almost five times the osmolarity of plasma, which is typically in the range of 285 to 300 mOsmol/L (rounded off to 300 mOsmol/L for convenience). The typical daily excretion of urea, sulfate, phosphate, other waste products, and ions amounts to approximately 600 mOsmol. Therefore, the minimal volume of urine water in which this mass of solute can be dissolved equals 600 mOsmol/day 5 0. The loss of this minimal volume of urine contributes to dehydration when water intake is very low. Urinary concentration takes place as tubular fluid flows through the medullary collecting ducts. In the presence of vasopressin, water diffuses out of the ducts into the interstitial fluid of the medulla and then enters the blood vessels of the medulla to be carried away. The Kidneys and Regulation of Water and Inorganic Ions 501 the key question is, How does the medullary interstitial fluid become hyperosmotic The answer involves several interrelated factors: (1) the countercurrent anatomy of the loop of Henle of juxtamedullary nephrons, (2) reabsorption of NaCl in the ascending limbs of those loops of Henle, (3) impermeability to water of those ascending limbs, (4) trapping of urea in the medulla, and (5) hairpin loops of vasa recta to minimize washout of the hyperosmotic medulla. The fluid entering the loop from the proximal tubule flows down the descending limb, turns the corner, and then flows up the ascending limb. The opposing flows in the two limbs are called countercurrent flows, and the entire loop functions as a countercurrent multiplier system to create a hyperosmotic medullary interstitial fluid. Because the proximal tubule always reabsorbs Na1 and water in the same proportions, the fluid entering the descending limb of the loop from the proximal tubule has the same osmolarity as plasma-300 mOsmol/L. For the moment, let us skip the descending limb because the events in it can only be understood in the context of what the ascending limb is doing.

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The rapidly adapting receptor shown has an "off response" at the end of the stimulus cholesterol test price in india order 5 mg prazosin with mastercard, which is not always the case cholesterol medication calculator cheap prazosin 2.5 mg buy on-line. Afferent neuron cell bodies are located in dorsal root ganglia of the spinal cord for sensory inputs from the body and cranial nerve ganglia for sensory inputs from the head. All the receptors of a single afferent neuron are preferentially sensitive to the same type of stimulus; for example, they are all sensitive to cold or all to pressure. Because the receptive fields for different modalities overlap, a single stimulus, such as an ice cube on the skin, can simultaneously give rise to the sensations of touch and temperature. Stimulus Location A third feature of coding is the location of the stimulus-in other words, where the stimulus is being applied. It should be noted that in vision, hearing, and smell, stimulus location is interpreted as arising from the site from which the stimulus originated rather than the place on our body where the stimulus was actually applied. For example, we interpret the sight and sound of a barking dog as arising from the dog in the yard rather than in a specific region of our eyes and ears. We will have more to say about this later; we deal here with the senses in which the stimulus is localized to a site on the body. Locating sensations from internal organs is less precise than from the skin because there are fewer afferent neurons in the internal organs and each has a larger receptive field. Stimulus Intensity How do we distinguish a strong stimulus from a weak one when the information about both stimuli is relayed by action potentials that are all the same amplitude As the strength of a local stimulus increases, receptors on adjacent branches of an afferent neuron are activated, resulting in a summation of their local currents. In addition to increasing the firing frequency in a single afferent neuron, stronger stimuli usually affect a larger area and activate similar receptors on the endings of other afferent neurons. For example, when you touch a surface lightly with a finger, the area of skin in contact with the surface is small, and only the receptors in that skin area are stimulated. This "calling in" of receptors on additional afferent neurons is known as recruitment. However, more subtle mechanisms also exist that allow us to localize distinct stimuli within the receptive field of a single neuron. In some cases, receptive field overlap aids stimulus localization even though, intuitively, overlap would seem to "muddy" the image. Central nervous system Importance of Receptor Field Overlap An afferent neuron responds most vigorously to stimuli applied at the center of its receptive field because the receptor density-that is, the number of its receptor endings in a given area-is greatest there. The response decreases as the stimulus is moved toward the receptive field periphery. The firing frequency of the afferent neuron is also related to stimulus strength, however. Therefore, neither the intensity nor the location of the stimulus can be detected precisely with a single afferent neuron.

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Because the brain and spinal cord are soft cholesterol and lecithin in eggs prazosin 5 mg order on-line, delicate tissues cholesterol test amazon 5 mg prazosin buy with mastercard, they are somewhat protected by this shockabsorbing fluid from sudden and jarring movements. If the outflow is obstructed, cerebrospinal fluid accumulates, causing hydrocephalus ("water on the brain"). In fact, the most common form of brain damage is caused by a decreased blood supply to a region of the brain. When neurons in the region are without a blood supply and deprived of nutrients and oxygen for even a few minutes, they cease to function and die. Although the adult brain makes up only 2% of the body weight, it receives 12% to 15% of the total blood supply, which supports its high oxygen utilization. If the blood flow to a region of the brain is reduced to 10% to 25% of its normal level, energydependent membrane ion pumps begin to fail, membrane ion gradients decrease, extracellular K1 concentration increases, and membranes depolarize. A complex group of blood­brain barrier mechanisms closely controls both the kinds of substances that enter the extracellular fluid of the brain and the rates at which they enter. These mechanisms minimize the ability of many harmful substances to reach the neurons, but they also reduce the access of some potentially helpful therapeutic drugs. The blood­brain barrier is formed by the cells that line the smallest blood vessels in the brain. It has anatomical structures, such as tight junctions, and physiological transport systems that handle different classes of substances in different ways. Substances that dissolve readily in the lipid components of the plasma membranes enter the brain quickly. Therefore, the extracellular fluid of the brain and spinal cord is a product of-but chemically different from-the blood. The blood­brain barrier accounts for some drug actions, too, as we can see from the following scenario. This difference renders heroin more lipid-soluble and able to cross the blood­brain barrier more readily than morphine. As soon as heroin enters the brain, however, enzymes remove the acetyl groups from heroin and change it to morphine. The morphine, less soluble in lipid, is then effectively trapped in the brain, where it may have prolonged effects. Many substances that do not dissolve readily in lipids, such as glucose and other important substrates of brain metabolism, nonetheless enter the brain quite rapidly by combining with membrane transport proteins in the cells that line the smallest blood vessels of the brain. Similar transport systems also move substances out of the brain and into the blood, preventing the buildup of molecules that could interfere with brain function. The choroid plexus vessel walls also have limited permeability to toxic heavy metals such as lead, thus affording a degree of protection to the brain. Thus, the restrictive, selective barrier mechanisms in the capillaries and choroid plexuses regulate the extracellular environment of the neurons of the brain and spinal cord. The brain consists of the cerebrum, diencephalon, midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata, and cerebellum.

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The central processes of the afferent neurons enter the brain or spinal cord and synapse upon interneurons there cholesterol levels over 1000 cheap 5 mg prazosin with visa. The interneurons upon which the afferent neurons synapse are called second-order neurons cholesterol test walmart 5 mg prazosin mastercard, and these in turn synapse with third-order neurons, and so on, until the information (coded action potentials) reaches the cerebral cortex. Most sensory pathways convey information about only a single type of sensory information. For example, one pathway conveys information only from mechanoreceptors, whereas another is influenced by information only from thermoreceptors. The olfactory cortex is located toward the midline on the undersurface of the frontal lobes (not visible in this picture). Association areas are not part of sensory pathways, but have related functions described shortly. In other words, they indicate that something is happening, without specifying just what or where. A given ascending neuron in a nonspecific ascending pathway may respond, for example, to input from several afferent neurons, each activated by a different stimulus, such as maintained skin pressure, heating, and cooling. The nonspecific ascending pathways, as well as collaterals from the specific ascending pathways, end in the brainstem reticular formation and regions of the thalamus and Cerebral cortex Thalamus and brainstem information even though all of it is being transmitted by essentially the same signal, the action potential. The ascending pathways in the spinal cord and brain that carry information about single types of stimuli are known as the specific ascending pathways. Thus, information from receptors on the right side of the body is transmitted to the left cerebral hemisphere, and vice versa. The specific ascending pathways that transmit information from somatic receptors project to the somatosensory cortex. Somatic receptors are those carrying information from the skin, skeletal muscle, bones, tendons, and joints. The specific ascending pathways from the eyes connect to a different primary cortical receiving area, the visual cortex, which is in the occipital lobe. The specific ascending pathways from the ears go to the auditory cortex, which is in the temporal lobe. Specific ascending pathways from the taste buds pass to the gustatory cortex adjacent to the region of the somatosensory cortex where information from the face is processed. The pathways serving olfaction project to portions of the limbic system and the olfactory cortex, which is located on the undersurface of the frontal and temporal lobes. Finally, the processing of afferent information does not end in the primary cortical receiving areas but continues from these areas to association areas in the cerebral cortex where complex integration occurs.

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Inog, 57 years: As a result, many daughter lymphocytes develop from a single progenitor that are identical in their ability to recognize a specific antigen; this is called clonal expansion. Activation of rapidly adapting receptors gives rise to the sensations of touch, movement, and vibration, whereas slowly adapting receptors give rise to the sensation of pressure. Because of different inputs from bipolar cell pathways to the ganglion cell, each receptive field has an inner core ("center") that responds differently than the area around it (the "surround"). A well-trained athlete is found to have a moderately increased plasma total cholesterol concentration.

Anktos, 35 years: In addition to receptors for neurotransmitters, smooth muscle plasma membranes contain receptors for a variety of hormones. Therefore, although most of the follicles in the ovaries are still primordial, a nearly constant number of preantral and early antral follicles are also always present. Similarly, at the end of the twitch, the isotonic load comes back to rest on the platform Muscle 269 Distance shortened (mm) 4 Slope = Shortening velocity Light load Intermediate load Heavy load Maximum shortening velocity (zero load) 3 1 Shortening velocity 2 Maximum isometric tension (zero velocity) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 Single action potential Time (msec) 0 distance shortened, velocity of shortening, and duration of shortening all decrease with increased load, whereas the time from stimulation to the beginning of shortening increases with increasing load. The cells a particular hormone influences that express the receptor for the hormone are known as the target cells for that hormone.

Onatas, 38 years: By increasing blood flow into the penis by arterial dilation and preventing outflow by compression of the veins, the volume of blood in the penis increases and the compartment becomes engorged. People with cerebellar damage cannot achieve this level of coordinated, precise, learned movement. Thus, during moderate-strength contractions, such as those that occur in most endurance types of exercise, relatively few fast-glycolytic motor units are recruited, and most of the activity occurs in the more fatigue-resistant oxidative fibers. Oral contraceptives are based on the fact that estrogen and progesterone can inhibit pituitary gland gonadotropin release, thereby preventing ovulation.

Grubuz, 28 years: Muscle 279 Force X = 70 kg 10 kg ë 35 cm = X ë 5 cm X = 70 kg 7 cm 10 kg 1 cm 5 cm 30 cm 10 kg Vm = Muscle contraction velocity Vh = Hand velocity = 7 Vm on the forearm while supporting a 10 kg load. These muscles also contract reflexively when you vocalize to reduce the perception of loudness of your own voice, and optimize hearing over certain frequency ranges. However, if the sound is excessively loud or prolonged, the hair cells themselves die and are not replaced. Protein is graded in terms of how closely its relative proportions of essential amino acids approximate those in the average body protein.

Kelvin, 54 years: During moderate exercise, ventilation increases in exact proportion to metabolism, but the signals causing this are not certain. Protein is graded in terms of how closely its relative proportions of essential amino acids approximate those in the average body protein. These persons must either have less physical activity than normal or have lower basal metabolic rates. Neuron endings from the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems terminate directly on cells within some endocrine glands, thereby regulating hormone secretion.

Grobock, 64 years: The membrane structures that form channels linking together the cytosols of two cells and permitting movement of substances from cell to cell are called. Platelets contain a very high concentration of actin and myosin (see Chapter 9), which are stimulated to interact in aggregated platelets. Most of the cytoplasm of a fiber is filled with myofibrils, each extending from one end of the fiber to the other and linked to the tendons at the ends of the fiber. Respiratory movements in the fetus do not require surfactant because the lungs are filled with amniotic fluid, and the fetus receives oxygen from the maternal blood through the placenta.

Tizgar, 63 years: Rather, the depolarization generates an action potential because the positive feedback cycle is operating. For both of these reasons, activating a fast-glycolytic motor unit will produce more force than activating a slow-oxidative motor unit. Abnormal or absent response of the pupil to changes in light can indicate damage to the midbrain from trauma or tumors. In the dorsal column pathway, sensory neurons do not cross over or synapse immediately upon entering the spinal cord.